ASSESSMENT OF LANGUAGE EXPRESSION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD: KINDERGARTEN TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES AND PRACTICES TOWARD CHILDREN’S INCORRECT RESPONSES

Authors

  • Anastasios I. Pekis Laboratory Teaching Staff, Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, Greece
  • Emmanuela Dionysiadi Pre-service Kindergarten Teacher Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, Greece

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.46827/ejlll.v9i3.646

Keywords:

preschool education, incorrect answers, children, kindergarten teachers

Abstract

This study investigates kindergarten teachers’ attitudes and instructional practices toward children’s responses that diverge from expected or desired answers within the context of everyday learning activities. The research adopts a quantitative approach and draws on data collected from a sample of 72 kindergarten teachers through a structured questionnaire. The analysis reveals that most teachers do not perceive such responses merely as mistakes or deficits but rather as valuable entry points for pedagogical intervention, opportunities to foster metacognitive awareness, and moments that stimulate children’s creative expression. Particular emphasis is placed on the kindergarten teachers’ preference for open-ended questions, which are recognized as instrumental in encouraging critical thinking, enabling children to articulate their ideas freely, and promoting dialogic forms of learning. Equally important is the creation of supportive and emotionally safe learning environments that normalize error as part of the learning process and prevent stigmatization. The findings also underscore the role of collaboration with parents, who are seen as crucial partners in reinforcing reflective and exploratory approaches to learning at home as well as in school. The study concludes by offering practical and theoretical recommendations aimed at strengthening kindergarten teachers’ professional capacity to respond effectively to such pedagogical challenges. These include the systematic integration of reflective teaching practices, the cultivation of empathetic and flexible responses to children’s unexpected contributions, and the promotion of professional development programs that enhance teachers’ theoretical grounding and practical skills in managing errors as learning opportunities. By situating the discussion within contemporary educational theories and the broader framework of child-centered pedagogy, the study highlights the need for a shift from corrective to constructive practices in early childhood education.

 

Author Biographies

  • Anastasios I. Pekis, Laboratory Teaching Staff, Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, Greece

    Anastasios Pekis is a laboratory teaching staff member in the Department of Preschool Education of the University of Crete. He graduated from the Department of Early Childhood Education at the University of Thessaly. He has a Master’s degree in the Educational Studies Department from the Open University of Cyprus and a PhD from the Department of Preschool Education of the University of Crete. Since 2023, he has been teaching at the Department of Preschool Education of the University of Crete, the courses “Teaching Practice-Level II, III” & “B.Ed. dissertation on topics in early childhood education”. He has published research articles and studies in journals, books and conference proceedings in English and Greek. His field of specialization is “Early childhood assessment”. His other current research interests concern “Teaching methodology at early childhood”.

  • Emmanuela Dionysiadi, Pre-service Kindergarten Teacher Department of Preschool Education, University of Crete, Greece

    Emmanuela Dionysiadi, born in Heraklion, Crete, is a final-year student at the University of Crete’s Department of Preschool Education. Her academic training has equipped her with both theoretical and practical knowledge in child development and early learning. She has attended seminars on differentiated instruction, creative engagement, and inclusive education for children with special needs. She is fluent in English and proficient in digital tools and presentation software. Her research interests include children's literature, educational leadership, psychomotor education, and music. She is passionate about fostering positive learning environments and aspires to establish a model kindergarten focused on experiential learning through interaction with animals and household activities, promoting autonomy, collaboration, and environmental awareness from early childhood.

References

Abrami P. C., Bernard R. M., Borokhovski E., Wade A., Surkes M. A., Tamim R., & Zhang D, 2008. Instructional interventions affecting critical thinking skills and dispositions: A Stage 1 Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 78(4): 1102-1134. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308326084

Al_Azam M. N. M., 2025. The degree to which Islamic education teachers in the northern Jordan valley schools take into account alleviating question anxiety among their students while asking class questions. Jordanian Educational Journal, 10(2): 98-116. https://doi.org/10.46515/jaes.v10i2.1515

Alexander R, 2008. Towards dialogic teaching: Rethinking classroom talk, Cambridge, UK, Dialogos.

Alloway T. P., 2006. How does working memory work in the classroom? Educational Research and Reviews, 1(4): 134–139. http://hdl.handle.net/1893/786

BERA, 2018. Ethical guidelines for educational research. British Educational Research Association. Retrieved from: https://www.bera.ac.uk/publication/ethical-guidelines-for-educational-research-2018-online Accessed 14 August 2025

Black P, & Wiliam D, 1998. Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2): 139–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/003172171009200119

Black P, & Wiliam D, 2009. Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21: 5–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-008-9068-5

Blessing A, 2025. Supporting self-regulation and autonomy in kindergarten. YC: Young Children, 80(1): 42-46. Retrieved from: https://sdcce.edu/sites/default/files/young-children-spring-2025.pdf

Bloom B. S., 1973. Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, USA, Longman.

Bloom P, 2000. How children learn the meanings of words, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press. Retrieved from https://direct.mit.edu/books/monograph/1843/How-Children-Learn-the-Meanings-of-Words

Boaler J, 2013. Ability and mathematics: The mindset revolution that is reshaping education. Forum, 55(1): 143–152. Retrieved from: https://www.youcubed.org/wp-content/uploads/14_Boaler_FORUM_55_1_web.pdf

Braun V, & Clarke V, 2006. Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2): 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Bruner J. S., 1983. Child’s talk: Learning to use language, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.ro/books/about/Child_s_Talk.html?id=nPxlQgAACAAJ&redir_esc=y

Bryman A, 2017. Social research methods, Athens, Gutenberg. [in Greek] Retrieved from https://ktpu.kpi.ua/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/social-research-methods-alan-bryman.pdf

Bytyqi-Damoni A, Metaj-Macula A, Veselaj Z, & Wendt H, 2025. Quality of 8th-grade science books: a systematic analysis of end-of-chapters-tasks in 8th-grade science books using Revised Bloom Taxonomy. Research in Science & Technological Education, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2025.2500033

Clark R. C., & Mayer R. E., 2008. Learning by viewing versus learning by doing: Evidence‐based guidelines for principled learning environments. Performance Improvement, 47(9): 5-13. https://doi.org/10.1002/pfi.20028

Cohen L, Manion L, & Morrison K, 2018. Research methods in education (8th ed.), Abingdon, Oxon, Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315456539

Cone W. H., & Hudgins J. M., 1989. Supervising effective teaching: Conceptual tools for getting started. The Clearing House, 63(3): 117-121. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.1989.9955740

Creswell J. W., & Creswell J. D., 2018. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.), Thousand Oaks, California, Sage. Retrieved from https://spada.uns.ac.id/pluginfile.php/510378/mod_resource/content/1/creswell.pdf

Diamond A, 2013. Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64: 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

Dörnyei Z, 2007. Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Dweck C. S., 2006. Mindset: The new psychology of success, New York, Random House. Retrieved from https://adrvantage.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Mindset-The-New-Psychology-of-Success-Dweck.pdf

Egamkulovna M. M., & Isamaddinovna Z. Z., 2025. The role of the educator's creativity in developing artistic and creative abilities in preschool children. European International Journal of Pedagogics, 5(04): 215-219. Retrieved from: https://inlibrary.uz/index.php/eijp/article/view/89191

Fischer K. W., 2008. 8-Dynamic cycles of cognitive and brain development: Measuring growth in mind, brain, and education. In A. M. Battro, K. W. Fischer & P. J. Léna (Eds.), The Educated Brain: Essays in Neuroeducation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 127-150. Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/educated-brain/dynamic-cycles-of-cognitive-and-brain-development-measuring-growth-in-mind-brain-and-education/F33E8D3A64003497EE17B74A509C7334

Flavell J. H., 1979. Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10): 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906

Gabas C, Cutler L, & Schachter R. E., 2023. Making mistakes: Children's errors as opportunities for emergent literacy learning in early childhood. The Reading Teacher, 76(6): 664-672. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2171

Gall M. D., 1970. The use of questions in teaching. Teacher Education Division Publication Series, Report A70-9, https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED067651

Harris, P. L., 2000. The work of the imagination. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-16798-000

Hattie J, & Timperley H, 2007. The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1): 81–112. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487

Jeon C. H., Shin J. Y., & Ryu S, 2025. Analyzing student communication patterns in science classes using machine learning and natural language processing: A case study on high school science education. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-025-10226-z

Kampeza M, & Sfiroera M, 2016. Management of the educational process: Dealing with error. In S. Avgitidou, M. Tzekaki, & V. Tsafos (Eds.), Student teachers observe, intervene, and reflect – Volume C, Athens, Gutenberg, pp. 177-187 [in Greek]

Kassotakis M, & Vamvouka I, 2007. Students’ errors through the lens of contemporary philosophical and psycho-pedagogical theories and their treatment within the educational practice. In Proceedings of the Conferences “Students’ errors: Indicators of effectiveness or keys to improving the quality of education” (Athens, November 1–2, 2007; Thessaloniki, December 13–14, 2007) (pp. 3–12). Center for Educational Research (KEE). Retrieved from: http://www.kee.gr/attachments/file/praktika/praktika_lathi.pdf [in Greek]

Krisdiawan R. A., Husen D, & Asikin N. A., 2025. Development of multilingual educational game UI/UX design for animal introduction and interactive learning evaluation in elementary schools. Journal of Games, Game Art, and Gamification, 10(1): 36-46. https://doi.org/10.21512/jggag.v10i1.12973

Mercer N, & Littleton K, 2007. Dialogue and the development of children’s thinking: A sociocultural approach, Abingdon, Oxon, Routledge. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203946657

Moumoulidou M, & Sofou E, 2022. Teaching strategies for addressing difficulties and errors during the development of daily calendar routines in kindergarten: A case study. Journal of Research in Education and Training, 15(1): 71–104. https://doi.org/10.12681/jret.29756 [in Greek]

Muijs D, 2011. Doing quantitative research in education with SPSS, Thousand Oaks, California, Sage. Retrieved from https://methods.sagepub.com/book/mono/doing-quantitative-research-in-education-with-spss-2e/toc#_=_

Mushin I, & Gardner R, & Gourlay C, 2021. Effective task instruction in the first year of school: What teachers and children do. Abingdon, Oxon, Routledge. Retrieved from https://www.routledge.com/Effective-Task-Instruction-in-the-First-Year-of-School-What-Teachers-and-Children-Do/Mushin-Gardner-Gourlay/p/book/9780367408374?srsltid=AfmBOorAQhCAQJ3yu24ymutq3ugRgoPI2cQ_Prw0LN4H3eoWQgN_bPAJ

Nystrand M, 1997. Opening dialogue: Understanding the dynamics of language and learning in the English classroom, New York, Teachers College Press. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/417942

Opiyo J. O., Asesa E., & Olel M, 2025. Actively engaging students as classroom management practice and academic performance: Results from a study of public secondary schools in Siaya County, Kenya. European Journal of Education Studies, 12(6): 142-162. Retrieved from: https://oapub.org/edu/index.php/ejes/article/view/6009/8633

Piaget J, 1952. The origins of intelligence in children. New York, International Universities Press. Retrieved from https://www.bxscience.edu/ourpages/auto/2014/11/16/50007779/Piaget%20When%20Thinking%20Begins10272012_0000.pdf

Rapti M, 2002. Students’ errors and their role in the learning process, Athens, Gutenberg. [in Greek]

Rezaei Manesh B, Bikdeli S, Pourezzat A. A., & Hosseinpour D, 2024. New institutionalism and ethical-cultural analysis of administrative behavior. International Journal of Ethics and Society, 6(2): 1–15. http://ijethics.com/article-1-289-en.html

Rogoff B, 1990. Apprenticeship in thinking: Cognitive development in social context, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1990-97332-000

Schön D. A., 1983. The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action, USA, Basic Books. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315237473

Seifried J, & Wuttke E, 2010. Students’ errors: how teachers diagnose them and how they respond to them. Empirical Research in Vocational Education and Training, 2(2): 147-162. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03546493

Sfard A, 1998. On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2): 4–13. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X027002004

Tegler H, 2025. 'But I don’t know, she might actually ask?' Detecting sources of self-efficacy and conditions fostering collective teacher efficacy by analysing transcribed panel and group discussions. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2025.2502460

Tomasello M, 2003. Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition. London, England, Harvard University Press. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv26070v8

Tomlinson C. A., 2001. How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms, Alexandria, Virginia, USA, ASCD. Retrieved from https://books.google.ro/books/about/How_to_Differentiate_Instruction_in_Mixe.html?id=A7zI3_Yq-lMC&redir_esc=y

Vamvouka I, 2008. Students’ errors according to contemporary psycho-pedagogical theories and their treatment within the educational practice. SKEPSY, 1, 159–175. [in Greek]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2020.1815790

Violette I. A., 2025. Southwestern K-12 teachers' descriptions of student-centered and relational coaching: A qualitative descriptive study, PhD thesis, Grand Canyon University.

Vygotsky L. S., 1978. Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes, London, England, Harvard University Press. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4

Wellington J, 2015. Educational research: Contemporary issues and practical approaches, London, Bloomsbury. https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/educational-research-9781472522009/

Whitebread D, Coltman P, Jameson H, & Lander R, 2009. Play, cognition and self-regulation: What exactly are children learning when they learn through play? Educational and Child Psychology, 26(2): 40–52. https://doi.org/10.53841/bpsecp.2009.26.2.40

Wood D, Bruner J. S., & Ross G, 1976. The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2): 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x

Downloads

Published

2025-09-26

Issue

Vol. 9 No. 3 (2025)

Section

Articles