DEMYSTIFYING AGRICULTURAL POPULISM IN MAASAI RANGELANDS IN THE SOUTHWESTERN KENYA
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.46827/ejsss.v10i4.1827Palavras-chave:
Amboseli ecosystem, agriculture expansion, Maasai pastoralism, livelihoods, income, conservanciesResumo
Agricultural expansion in Kenya’s Amboseli region has resulted in proven negative effects both on native megafauna that use the ecosystem as a dispersal area, as well as on grazing and water resources utilized by local livestock herds. While community conservancy programs supported by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) provide an ecologically sustainable alternative to farming’s increasing popularity, the claim that agriculture is the most profitable land-use option for the region remains dominant –– even as increasingly frequent droughts interrupt agricultural processes. This study presents a comparative analysis of the overall benefit of land-use– agriculture and conservancies– in the Amboseli region. We draw on fieldwork conducted between March - May 2023, in the former Kimana Group Ranch in the Amboseli region of southwestern Kenya. Data was collected through household surveys with 150 landowners, and key informant interviews with leaders and officers of various conservancies and NGOs in the area. We conducted approximate analyses of the annual cash flow reported by each household to compare the profitability of different land-use options. The results of the study show that, while agriculture is by far the most popular land-use option in Amboseli, the region’s traditional pastoralist practices remain the most financially stable and lucrative land-use option. Leasing land for conservation through community conservancies was the second most profitable. Irrigated agriculture, mostly practiced by non-Maasai people, showed relatively short-lived financial returns. We argue that increased farming in Maasai rangelands is fueled primarily by land privatization and the promise of immediate profits –– promises whose benefits are far outweighed by long-term economic and socio-ecological consequences. Considering that indigenous Maasai pastoralism is most sustainable for the semiarid rangeland and that our research indicated agriculture is practiced most by non-Maasai, we argue for an examination of how traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) competes with non-indigenous practices, especially considering that rangelands in East Africa are increasingly becoming fragile due to climate change.
Article visualizations:
Referências
Amwata, D. A., Nyariki, D. M., & Musimba, N. R. K. 2016. Factors Influencing Pastoral and Agropastoral Household Vulnerability to Food Insecurity in the Drylands of Kenya: A Case Study of Kajiado and Makueni Counties. Journal of International Development, 28(5), 771–787. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3123
Amboseli Ecosystem Trust. 2023. Ecosystem conservation. Amboseli Ecosystem Trust. Retrieved April 10, 2023. Retrieved from https://amboseliecosystem.org/
Boone, R.B., BurnSilver, S. B., Thornton, P. K., Worden, J. S., & Galvin, K. A. 2005. Quantifying Declines in Livestock Due to Land Subdivision. Rangeland Ecology & Management. 58 (2004), 523–532. http://dx.doi.org/10.2111/1551-5028(2005)58[523:QDILDT]2.0.CO;2
Bulte, Erwin; Boone, Randall B.; Stringer, Randy; Thornton, Philip K. 2008. Elephants or onions? Paying for nature in Amboseli, Kenya. Environment and Development Economics; 13(3): 395-414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X08004312
BigLife. (n.d.). A timeline of accomplishments. Big Life Foundation. Retrieved April 29, 2023. https://biglife.org/who-we-are/timeline
Campbell, D.J., Gichohi, H., Mwangi, A., Chege, L., 2000. Land use conflict in Kajiado District, Kenya. Land Use Policy, 17: 337–348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0264-8377(00)00038-7
CSA. 2016. Kajiado County: Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health Factsheet. Centre for the Study of Adolescents. Retrieved April 29, 2023.
GOK 2013. County Integrated Development Plan 2013-2017. County Government of Kajiado, Government of Kenya.
Groom, R. J., Western, David. 2013. Impact of Land Subdivision and Sedentarization on Wildlife in Kenya's Southern Rangelands. Rangeland Ecology & Management, Vol. 66, No. 1, pp. 1-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/23355261
Hemingway, C., Cochet, H., Mialhe, F., Gunnell, Y. 2022. Why pastoralists grow tomatoes: Maasai livelihood dynamics in Amboseli, southern Kenya. Journal of Rural Studies, 92, pp. 253-268. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.03.027
IPC. 2022. Acute Food Insecurity and Acute Malnutrition Analysis. Integrated Food Security Phase Classification, Published on September 28, 2022
Kariuki, R.W., Western, D., Willcock, S., Marchant, R. Assessing Interactions between Agriculture, Livestock Grazing and Wildlife Conservation Land Uses: A Historical Example from East Africa. Land 2021, 10, 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10010046
Kiaka, R., P. Hebinck and R. Lubilo. 2024. The CBNRM-isation of East and Southern Africa: A critical review of the conservancy model. In Sherren, K., Thondhlana, G., & Jackson-Smith, D. (Eds.). Opening Windows: Embracing New Perspectives and Practices in Natural Resource Social Sciences. Utah State University Press and University Press of Colorado, Denver, Colorado.
Kimani, K., & Pickard, J. 1998. Recent Trends and Implications of Group Ranch Sub-Division and Fragmentation in Kajiado District, Kenya. The Geographical Journal, 164(2), 202–213. https://doi.org/10.2307/3060370
Kimiti et al. 2016. Community perceptions on spatio-temporal land use changes in the Amboseli ecosystem, southern Kenya. Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice 6:24. Retrieved from https://pastoralismjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s13570-016-0070-0
Kipkeu, M. L., Mwangi, S. W., Njogu, J. 2014. Incentives for enhanced community participation in wildlife conservation in Amboseli, Kenya. IMPACT: International Journal of Research in Applied, Natural and Social Sciences. Vol. 2, Issue 5. Egerton University. Nakuru, Kenya. Retrieved from https://www.impactjournals.us/download/archives/--1399624755-9.%20Applied-INCENTIVES%20FOR%20ENHANCED%20COMMUNITY%20PARTICIPATION-Samson%20W.%20Mwangi.pdf
Kipkeu, M.L., Mwangi, S.W. and Njogu, J., 2014. Community participation in wildlife conservation in Amboseli Ecosystem, Kenya. Journal of Environmental Science, Taxicology and Food Technology, 8(4), pp.68-75. Retrieved from https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jestft/papers/vol8-issue4/Version-2/K08426875.pdf
KWCA. 2020. KWCA strategic plan 2019-2023. Kenya Wildlife Conservancies Association. Retrieved April 29, 2023, Retrieved from https://kwcakenya.com/download/kwca-strategic-plan-2019-2023/
Manoa, D.O. and Mwaura, F. 2016. Predator-Proof Bomas as a Tool in Mitigating Human-Predator Conflict in Loitokitok Sub-County, Amboseli Region of Kenya. Natural Resources, 7, 28-39. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/nr.2016.71003
Mbane, J.O., Chira, R.M. and Mwangi, E.M., 2019. Impact of land use and tenure changes on the Kitenden wildlife corridor, Amboseli Ecosystem, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology, 57(3), pp.335-343. https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12611
Moiko, S., Bedelian, C., Said, M. Y., Abuya, R., Atela, J. 2019. Land Use Transformation in Kajiado County, Kenya: Implications of a Changing Climate. Kenya Markets Trust. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344453077_Land_use_transformation_in_Kajiado_County_Kenya_Implications_of_a_changing_climate
MTW. 2018. Blueprint to transform wildlife conservation in Kenya (Abridged Version). Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife National Wildlife Strategy 2030. Nairobi, Kenya.
Mwangi, E. 2007. The puzzle of group ranch subdivision in Kenya’s Maasailand. Development and Change, Institute of Social Studies 38(5): 889–910. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2007.00438.x
Nicholson, S. E. 2017. Climate and climatic variability of rainfall over eastern Africa, Reviews of Geophysics 55, 590–635. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016RG000544
Njuguna, E. W., Mburu, J. 2021. Household determinants of competing land uses in the Amboseli Ecosystem, Kenya. Agricultural Economics Department, University of Nairobi. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105793
Ntiati, Paul. 2002. Group Ranches Subdivision Study in Loitokitok Division of Kajiado District, Kenya. Land-Use Change Impacts and Dynamics (LUCID). African Wildlife Foundation. CGIAR. Accessed April 29, 2023. Retrieved from https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/5600f638-e223-427a-84ac-4e1a6f7bcf73/content
Okello, M. M. 2005. Land Use Changes and Human – Wildlife Conflicts in the Amboseli Area, Kenya, Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 10:1, 19-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/10871200590904851
Okello, M. M., Buthmann, E., Mapinu, B., Kahi, H. C. 2011. Community Opinions on Wildlife, Resource Use and Livelihood Competition in Kimana Group Ranch Near Amboseli, Kenya. The Open Conservation Biology Journal. Nairobi, Kenya. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874839201105010001
Okello, M.M. and D’amour, D.E., 2008. Agricultural expansion within Kimana electric fences and implications for natural resource conservation around Amboseli National Park, Kenya. Journal of Arid environments, 72(12), pp.2179-2192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2008.07.008
Sitters, J., Heitkönig, I. M., Holmgren, M., & Ojwang’, G. S. 2009. Herded cattle and wild grazers partition water but share forage resources during dry years in East African savannas. Biological Conservation. Retrieved April 15, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.12.001
Stettler, M. 2002. John Commons on Institutional Disorder and an application relating to property rights in Maasai territory. Journal of Economic Issues, 36(2), 517–525. Retrieved from https://ideas.repec.org/a/mes/jeciss/v36y2002i2p517-525.html
Tiller, L. N., Humle, T., Amin, R., Deere, N. J., Lago, B. O., Leader-Williams, N., Sinoni, F. K., Sitati, N., Walpole, M., & Smith, R. J. 2021. Changing seasonal, temporal and spatial crop-raiding trends over 15 years in a human-elephant conflict hotspot. Biological Conservation, 254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108941
UNFPA. 2023. Health and Violence Risks Multiply for Women and girls in Kenya as worst drought in 40 years takes hold. United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved April 29, 2023. Retrieved from https://reliefweb.int/report/kenya/health-and-violence-risks-multiply-women-and-girls-kenya-worst-drought-40-years-takes-hold
World Bank. 2022. Kenya Economic Update, December 2022 : Continued Rebound, but Storms Cloud the Horizon. Policies to Accelerate the Productive Economy for Inclusive Growth). Kenya Economic Update Washington, D.C. World Bank Group. https://documents.worldbank.org/pt/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099400212072220291/p1797690ba796602b092ba0149f48220ed7
Zeufack, Albert G.; Calderon, Cesar; Kubota, Megumi; Korman, Vijdan; Cantu Canales, Catalina; Kabundi, Alain N. 2021. “Africa’s Pulse, No. 24” (October), World Bank, Washington, DC. Doi: 10.1596/978-1-4648-1805-9. Retrieved from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/786721633587328307/pdf/Africa-s-Pulse-No-24-October-2021-An-Analysis-of-Issues-Shaping-Africa-s-Economic-Future.pdf
